Early rockets were used by humans more than 2,000 years ago - well before the first car or airplane - and have evolved in space over the past 70 years.1 Rockets started out as simple tubes that could propel into the sky with opposite force, and now can inspire humanity as they launch into orbit within a few minutes.2 Early rocketry was driven by curiosity and an interest in mathematics and engineering. Today’s rockets are a collection of centuries of human ingenuity and innovation rooted in foundational science and technology of the past. They are a culmination of numerous experiments, observations and iterations of rocket designs.3 From the V-2 as the first to reach suborbital space flight in 1944 to reusable ones like the SpaceX Falcon 9, rocketry has evolved with the promise of propelling humans deeper and deeper into space.4 In this chapter, you will learn about the history of rocketry as early as 400 B.C., read about the prominent rocket developers who paved breakthroughs in the industry, and explore rockets currently under development that could send humans to the Moon and beyond.

Early Rocketry

The first object in history to use rocket propulsion was not invented by a rocket scientist, but by Greek philosopher Archytas around 400 B.C. Archytas amazed the citizens of his community by flying a wooden pigeon suspended by wire that was powered by escaping steam. Centuries later, principles behind rocketry and jet propulsion were discovered, albeit unknowingly, by the invention of a steam engine known as the Hero Engine or the aeolipile in 10 A.D. in Alexandria.5 The Chinese discovered a precursor to a true rocket through the invention of fireworks, which consisted of a mixture of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal dust (gunpowder mixture) that produced colorful explosions and smoke when ignited.6 The earliest record of a true rocket, described as “arrows of flying fire,” dates back to 1232 A.D. during the battle of Kai-Keng. The original purpose of these simple, solid propellant rockets was to give Chinese invaders an advantage during war. After the war, the Mongol Empire created their own versions of this rocket and sold it across Europe where it gained popularity for warfare.7 

[Figure 2]

Bust from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum of Archytas. Source: Wikipedia

It wasn’t until the 1200s that a formula for how to make gunpowder was actually recorded by Roger Bacon, an English philosopher who predicted an increased presence of gunpowder use in war.8 In the 1500s, a public Chinese official named Wan Hu had his eyes set on riding a rocket into the sky. With 47 primitive black-powder rockets attached to his chair, Hu traveled a small distance into the sky and then “disappeared in an explosion and a cloud of smoke.”9 The legend claims that Hu traveled to space, but the MythBusters TV show debunked this tale in episode 24 in 2004.10 By the 16th century, early rocket technology was used heavily in Asia and Europe for warfare, in addition to fireworks. In 1591, German firework maker, Johann Schmidlap, invented two stage fireworks or the “step rocket,” which created the base for multistage rockets to reach higher altitudes.11 Later in this century, the first written work detailing the systematic anatomy and science behind rocket technology, including descriptions of crewed rockets, was recorded by Austrian military engineer Conrad Haas.4

Early inventors, builders and engineers set a foundation for the space technology used to send humans into orbit today. Their ingenuity built a foundation of discovery and innovation. 

CONNECTION

Build a rocket like early inventors with adult supervision by completing the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Stomp Rocket Engineering Activity.

Fathers of Rocketry

Well-known scientific theories like Newton’s third law of motion (i.e., every action has an equal and opposite reaction) and Galileo’s property of inertia have helped shape the principles of rocketry today.12 Three rocket scientists - Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert Goddard and Hermann Oberth - are considered the “fathers of rocketry” based on their contributions to advancing the success of rockets. Tsiolkovsky is known for publishing the rocket equation in 1903 that is still highly relevant for the design of space missions today. This equation applied Newton’s Laws into a formula for the increase in velocity due to a rocket engine. Tsiolkovsky is sometimes known as the grandfather of rocketry because he inspired so many future engineers to design the modern rockets that we still use today; specifically around the calculation of mass, the velocity needed and how fast gas has to exit the nozzle to get the payload off the ground.13 

Goddard is known as the father of modern rocketry. Brainstorming ways for rockets to reach the Moon back in the 1920s (decades before President John F. Kennedy proposed his Moonshot Thinking speech), Goddard patented the first rocket using liquid fuel. He later successfully launched and tested the first liquid fuel rocket. Goddard also patented multistage rockets that used solid fuel, developed theories for rocket propulsion, and in 1929 he launched a rocket with the first scientific payload with a barometer and a camera.14 The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center is named in his honor.15

Oberth was inspired at a young age by space and space travel. By the time he was 14, he had already envisioned a type of rocket that could propel itself into space using the momentum of exhaust gas. Oberth published a book about rocket travel into space in 1923, eventually gaining him a reputation in rocketry that led to inspire Wernher von Braun’s design of the German V-2 rocket. Later in life, Oberth worked with the U.S. Army on developing rockets that could reach outer space. His work contributed to the Saturn V rocket which carried people to the Moon.16 

The fathers of rocketry have contributed to the successes of space travel we take pride in today. Their work will continue to propel humans to new potential. 

DID YOU KNOW?

Women rocket engineers have also made a significant impact on modern rocketry. The book, Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us, from Missiles to the Moon to Mars by Nathalia Holt shares their stories. 

Rockets in Early Spaceflight

The V-2 rocket, or Vergeltungswaffen-2, set the stage for modern rocketry. This German rocket was launched in 1942 during World War II. Although famous for its impact on space exploration today, it caused a lot of devastating damage during wartime.17 These rockets were captured by the U.S. and Soviet Union for research purposes that later guided space rocket developments. The V-2 rocket was thrust by burning ethanol and liquid oxygen, and was the first one to reach suborbital space at an altitude of 575,520 feet.18 

The Soviet Union developed the first satellite, Sputnik 1, to reach space. Sputnik 1 was launched into space using a R-7 rocket, also called Semyorka “number 7,” which was inspired by the German V-2 rocket.19 The Vostok, an R-7 variant rocket, also sent Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin (the first human into space) in 1961.20 Sputnik 1 inaugurated the Space Age and launched a space innovation competition with the U.S. The first U.S. satellite, Explorer, launched in 1958 on a Juno I rocket with its foundation taken from the Jupiter-C rocket developed under the guidance of famous rocket developer Dr. Wernher von Braun, who was one of the masterminds behind the V-2 rocket. Dr. von Braun later became director of NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center and architect of the Saturn V launch rocket which sent humans to the Moon. He is still remembered today for his significant contributions to rocketry.21 

Early rocket developers realized the importance of rockets having “stages” in order to increase available payload weight and thrust to great altitudes. There are two types of rocket staging: serial and parallel. In the serial staging, one or two small rockets are stacked underneath the first stage rocket and during launch, the bottom rocket(s) are discarded (into the ocean) while the top rocket that contains the payload is sent into orbit. This was the style of staging used on the Saturn V rocket that was used in the Apollo program in the 1960s and 1970s.22 Thirteen total Saturn V rockets launched between 1967 and 1972, with the last launch of Saturn V converted into Skylab.23 Three Saturn V rockets remain in the U.S.; one is on exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center, another is located at the Johnson Space Center, and the third is at the United States Space and Rocket Center.24 The Saturn V rocket is historical and has been a starting point for future rockets.25 The parallel staging rockets like that of Titan III’s and Delta II’s discard rockets that are strapped onto the sides of a payload, rather than stacked on top of one another.26

Rockets provide power and thrust to get materials and people into space. Without rockets, humans would not have a presence in orbit and life on Earth would be entirely different today. 

DID YOU KNOW?

The three-stage Saturn V rocket assembly requires 20,000 gallons of liquid oxygen and 63,000 gallons of liquid hydrogen to reach full throttle! 

Rockets of Today and Tomorrow

Rockets are much larger and more powerful than rockets of the past. The future of rockets is evolving with the new technology of reaching space using a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane (SSTO) or two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) reusable launch vehicles (RLV). This design allows rockets to be reusable, affordable and environmentally-friendly.27 The problem with single stage rockets, however, is that they can only carry a small payload, making the multistage rocket the best option to launch to reach further altitudes and orbits.28 SpaceX’s Falcon 9 is the first two-stage, reusable rocket intended to transport people or payloads to orbit and beyond producing 1.7 million pounds of thrust. Falcon 9 uses a family of rocket engines known as Merlin, which uses rocket kerosene (RP-1) and liquid oxygen to propel spacecraft into space.29 The first stage of the Falcon 9 is the Merlin to help limit acceleration of the vehicle into space, and near the end of the engine, the Merlin burns a second time to help with orientation to return to the surface of Earth for reuse. The second stage of the Falcon 9 is the Merlin Vacuum Engine which has the ability to fire several times to orient the rocket into its precise orbit in space. For comparison, the first stage contains nine Merlin Engines whereas the second stage contains one Merlin Vacuum Engine.30 

The Rocket Lab is a commercial launch company which has designed the low-mass, low-cost, and reusable rocket Electron that provides launch services to NASA, Space Force and Astro Digital.31 NASA is currently developing the most powerful rocket ever known called the Space Launch System (SLS). SLS will have the longest launch range of any other rocket - it will be capable of sending humans to the Moon on a single mission. Whether sending humans to Mars or conducting a robotic mission on another planet, SLS can evolve depending on the needs of the mission. SLS has three main thrust variants and each variant has an option for the crew or for cargo. The Block 1 SLS crew or cargo has a thrust of 8.8 million pounds, which come from the four RS-25 engines core stage. Each of these engines have controllers for on-flight options. The main part of thrust, approximately 75% of which will come from the two boosters, is the most powerful ever built. The Block 1B SLS crew and cargo has a thrust of 8.9 million pounds,  and the Block 2 SLS crew and cargo delivers 9.5 million pounds of thrust.32 The development of SLS involves collaboration between all NASA centers and over 1,100 space companies.33  SpaceX’s fully-reusable, two-stage Starship rocket is another extremely powerful rocket system under development. This is being tested with the hope of reliably delivering satellites to Earth’s orbit and bringing crews and cargo to the Moon, Mars and beyond.34

Rocket innovation is continuing to evolve today and into the future. Powerful, safe and reusable rocket systems will create a more accessible and sustainable future of space exploration. 

DID YOU KNOW?

NASA’s SLS is the successor of the Space Shuttle and will lead deep space missions and crewed flights in the Artemis program. Take a look to learn more about the development of SLS! 

Additional Reading

Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us, from Missiles to the Moon to Mars by Nathalia Holt shares the stories of prominent female rocket engineers and developers! Rent from your local library or purchase online here.

Build rockets and learn more about rocket science in the book, Make: Rockets: Down-to-Earth Rocket Science by Mike Westerfield! 

Learn more about How Rockets Work on a basic physics level by reading more about inertia and Newton’s laws.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. How do early inventors contribute to the other space innovations we have today (i.e., satellites, rovers, etc.)? 

2. How did the work of previous thinkers inspire the fathers of rocketry? What does this mean about the importance of collaboration in science and engineering?

3. Does a serial staging rocket have an advantage over a parallel rocket, or are these just design differences? 

4. How has the commercial space industry changed the rocket industry? 

5. How does space environmentalism and sustainability intersect with the field of rocketry?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation

in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

World War II (WWII) ended with an explosion. The atomic bomb being dropped on Japan to end the war was a show of force never seen before. The U.S. had been working with the Soviet Union, but not because either country wanted to. By the end of WWII, Americans were fearful that the Soviet Union would try to control the world. The Soviets were resentful of the U.S.’ arms buildup, intervention in international affairs and aggressive rhetoric. With the atomic bomb being developed in the U.S., the Soviet Union also needed to develop an atomic bomb. This started both countries on the path to developing hydrogen bombs. This was the start of the Cold War.1 A cold war is a war that does not involve direct violence, but is fought through politics and advancements. A hot war is the opposite, where weapons and force are used violently against the opposing nation or group.2

The Cold War quickly expanded in the Space Race. WIth nuclear weapons, both countries wanted the ability to send missiles without having to fly jets to get it there. This started the development of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) which started the race into space.3 Both countries were determined to prove their superiority over the other.

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) were a by-product of the Cold War. They were designed to reach continents thousands of miles away from where they were launched.4 In 1957, Sergei Korolëv (a Soviet rocket designer) successfully developed this technology and R-7 was first launched. They soon realized that this same technology could be used to launch satellites into orbit and R-7 was used to launch Sputnik.5 This proved the Soviet Union’s ability to send a missile to a target that was thousands of miles away and the U.S. needed to catch up. The Soviet Union had already exploded the “H-bomb” (hydrogren bomb, which is a thousand times more powerful than an atomic bomb)6 and could therefore destroy large sections of the U.S. without leaving their country. The U.S. countered by exponentially increasing their funding for the Minutemen program to develop missiles leading to the country having its first ICBMs by 1959.7,8 Since these rockets were designed to carry nuclear bombs to other continents, they are powerful enough to launch satellites and space capsules. Thus, opening up the world to space exploration.

[Figure 2]

The US launched its first rocket large enough to carry ICBMs in 1958. Source: NASA

ICBMs are still an important part of the global power balance with countries that possess the technology in what is called a “mutually assured destruction”. This means that if one country attacks, both countries will be destroyed by the nuclear weapons of the other.9

CONNECTION

Learn more about what is needed for a successful rocket launch using Science Learning Hub’s Rocket Launch Challenge. Once you are able to successfully launch a rocket, increase the mass to simulate a larger payload like adding astronauts and their needed supplies to see how this changes the amount of thrust needed.

Sputnik 1

Known as the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 started the Space Race. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union used R-7 to launch a basketball-sized satellite into orbit. It was 184 pounds and its only function was to emit a beeping sound. But the rest of the world did not know that.10 It traveled at an altitude of 900 kilometers above Earth and completed a full orbit every hour and thirty-five minutes.11 The beeping signal continued for 21 days (the life of the batteries on board) and orbited for three months until it was pulled into Earth’s atmosphere and disintegrated upon entry.12

Sputnik 1 not only launched the Space Race, but the rush to land humans on the Moon. Within four months of its launch, the U.S. had successfully launched Explorer 1 - the first U.S. satellite. In just over a decade later, Apollo 11 successfully flew humans to the Moon.13 These instances proved the possibility of space travel and opened up the world to try and make thousands of other things possible. 

[Figure 3]

Learn more about the design and history of the Sputnik 1 at NASA.

Vostok 1

After the success of Sputnik 1, the Soviet Union continued their quest into space. In 1960, they started a nationwide search for potential pilots to be the first human in space. Yuri Gagarin was a senior lieutenant in the Soviet Air Force and was easily selected for the training program. Of the 20 selected candidates, he was most favored by his peers. His dedication to training helped, but the real thing that put him ahead was his height! At just 1.57 meters tall (just under 5 feet 2 inches), Gagarin would not take up very much space in the capsule and this was key for the success of the mission.14 On April 12, 1961, he circled Earth for 108 minutes (a little more than one complete orbit) in Vostok 1. The spacecraft reached a maximum height of 327 kilometers (203 miles) and was mainly controlled automatically, but also had a manual override code. Gagarin remarkably remained conscious upon reentry while he was experiencing 8 Gs of force as the spacecraft plummeted through the atmosphere with no way of breaking. He ejected and parachuted the last seven kilometers (four miles) to land safely just outside of Engels in current day Russia.15

Once you've been in space, you appreciate how small and fragile the Earth is. - Valentina Tereshkova16 

After the second man to orbit space, the Soviet Union started looking for women parachutists. Valentina Tereshkova was working in a textile mill and making jumps with a parachutists club. She was inspired by the orbit of cosmonaut Gherman Titov and wrote to the space center to volunteer as a cosmonaut. She was selected with just three other women for the training (which was the same one given to men).17 She launched in Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963 and orbited Earth 45 times in her almost 71 hours in space. Unlike Gagarin, Tereshkova operated her spacecraft with manual controls because of an error in the automatic navigation software that started taking the ship away from Earth. She parachuted to Earth for the last part of the descent like Gagarin landing near today’s border of Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China.18

DID YOU KNOW?

Valentina Tereshkova almost did not make it back to Earth alive and kept it a secret to keep the engineer who made the mistake safe.

Project Mercury

Not to be out done in the Space Race, the U.S. started Project Mercury in 1958 with the main mission of orbiting Earth in a crewed spacecraft. There were 20 uncrewed missions to test all the different equipment and the booster. During the uncrewed missions, there were three monkeys that tested the Mercury spacecraft; one rhesus monkey, Sam, and two chimpanzees, Ham and Enos, returned safely to Earth.19 Next came the six crewed missions as part of the program. The first of these was Mercury Flight 1: mission named Mercury-Redstone 3 with the Freedom 7 capsule which launched Alan Shepard into suborbital flight on May 5, 1961. He remained 116 miles above Earth for almost 15.5 minutes making him the first American and second human to fly in space.20 (He would later fly on Apollo 14 becoming the fifth man on the Moon).21 On Freedom 7, Shepard did not make a complete orbit around the Earth but landed in the ocean outside of Florida.22 The Mercury missions allowed space for one astronaut, which led to the Gemini missions where NASA could send two astronauts. All of the missions helped prepare the way from the success of Shepard’s flight to spurring. President John F. Kennedy asked Congress for the funding to send humans to the Moon with the Apollo missions.23 

The five other Mercury missions were also successful and steadily increased the amount of time the astronaut spent in space and the number of orbits they were able to complete. They ended with Mercury-Atlas 9 with the capsule Faith 7 taking Gordon Cooper into space on May 15, 1963. He completed 22.5 orbits of Earth in just over 34 hours.24 This was so scientists could study the effects of microgravity for a day on the body in preparation for sending astronauts to the Moon.25 

  “In this image, insignias from each of the six manned Mercury 7 missions and autographs of the original seven NASA astronauts encircle the Mercury spacecraft.”26

[Figure 4]

Source: NASA

Voskhod 

The Soviet Union was not giving up in the Space Race and started the Voskhod program in 1963. Similar to the Mercury missions, the Soviet Union built upon the Vostok spacecraft capacity of one cosmonaut to an upgraded spacecraft known as the Voskhod in order to carry additional crew. The Voskhod could carry up to three cosmonauts. The Soviet Union also started with uncrewed missions to test the equipment and even sent two dogs, Veterok and Ugolyok into orbit for 22 days.27 (These were not the first animals in space; that honor was given to Laika on Sputnik 2 in 1957).28 There were only two successful crewed missions in the program. The second carried cosmonauts Alexei Leonov and Pavel Belyayev. The main mission of the flight was to complete a spacewalk (maneuvering outside the spacecraft) before the U.S. Gemini Project was able to complete the maneuver.29 On March 18, 1965, Leonov exited Voskhod 2 tied to a five-meter (16 foot) safety line, becoming the first human to perform an extra vehicular activity (EVA). He spent about 10 minutes floating in orbit, but became extremely hot in his spacesuit. The spacesuit was also not well equipped for the vacuum of space and inflated with the air needed to keep Leonov alive. He managed to deflate the spacesuit and reenter the spacecraft head first.30 This successfully kept the Soviet Union ahead of the U.S. in the Space Race. 

CONNECTION

For a small fee, you can experience a spacewalk on the International Space Station (ISS) from Opaque Space in their virtual reality (VR) game, Earthlight: Spacewalk. If you do not have VR technology, you can also watch the simulator being used by KurtJMac.

Gemini Project

After the Mercury Project, NASA implemented the Gemini Project in 1964. Gemini was a step up from Mercury in that the capsule could hold two astronauts instead of just one. It also increased control of the spacecraft, allowing for the craft to change orbits as well as orientation (Mercury only allowed a change in orientation).31 There were four main goals of the program: (1) to test an astronaut’s ability to fly in space for up to two weeks; (2) to understand how to rendezvous and dock in orbit; (3) to work on reentry and landing technology; and (4) to further study the effect of space flight on the human body.32 The program consisted of 10 crewed missions all of which built on the previous flights’ successes.33 

Gemini 4 was crewed by James McDivitt and Edward White when it launched on June 3, 1965. During the four-day orbit, White used special gear that could be pressurized to complete the first U.S. spacewalk and the first person to propel themselves in space with a maneuvering unit.34 He was on the EVA for 23 minutes. The suit did not give White trouble as Leonov’s had, but there was initial difficulty resealing the hatch to the spacecraft following the EVA.35 Gemini 7 (launched on December 4, 1965, and crewed by Frank Borman and Jim Lovell) tested the effects of long space flight on the human body. They stayed in orbit for two weeks.36 The NASA record of holding astronauts in orbit for two-week durations held until the Russian cosmonauts on Soyuz 9 spent 18 days in space in 1970. This record was then held until 1973 when U.S. astronauts in Skylab 2 lasted over 28 days.37 Gemini 8, which launched on March 16, 1966 crewed by Neil Armstrong and David Scott, was the first spacecraft to dock with another spacecraft in orbit around Earth. Gemini 8 docked with the Gemini Agena Target Vehicle, an uncrewed spacecraft, on March 17 after just five revolutions between the two vehicles. After 27 minutes, the two vehicles disengaged due to violent yaw and tumble motions created by them being linked.38 Thus, making the Gemini Project successful in all four of its objectives.

DID YOU KNOW?

The Gemini Program was called the “Bridge to the Moon” because it was going to test the necessary techniques and technologies to be able to land on and return from the Moon.

Apollo

The Gemini Project set the stage for the Apollo program which was started in 1961. It took seven years for the first crewed mission to launch. The first flight, Apollo 1, was supposed to launch a year earlier in 1967, but during a testing of the launch pad a flash fire killed the three astronauts on board: Gus Grissom (Mercury and Gemini missions), Edward White (who previously flew aboard Gemini 4) and Roger Chaffee (this was his first mission).39 Apollo 7 was the first Apollo flight to successfully launch a crew into space in October of 1968. They stayed for almost 11 days to test many of the spacecraft systems and stream the first live TV program from an American spacecraft. The next three Apollo missions continued testing different aspects of a lunar landing like orbiting the Moon, the lunar module separation and flying the lunar module.40

Apollo 11 launched on July 16, 1969 crewed by Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Michael Collins and Lunar Module Pilot Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin. Armstrong (from Gemini 8) became the first human to step on the Moon on July 20, 1969. Twenty minutes later, he was joined by the second human on the Moon, Aldrin. They left medallions commemorating the three Apollo 1 astronauts and two cosmonauts who died in accidents, and a silicon disk containing goodwill messages as well as the names of congressional and NASA leaders on the Moon. Aldrin was on the Moon for over an hour and a half and Armstrong was on the surface for over two and a half hours.41 This officially allowed the U.S. to declare victory over the Soviet Union in the Space Race.42 

[Figure 5]

Launch of Apollo 11. Source: NASA

Apollo 12 saw the next two humans on the Moon in a mission to recover Surveyor 3 pieces from the lunar surface. Apollo 13 was not able to land on the Moon because of an explosion in an oxygen tank that crippled the ship, but they were able to safely return to Earth, labeling it a “successful failure.” Apollo 14 brought Shepard (from Freedom 7) back to space where he set the record for the longest walk on the lunar surface. Apollo 15 allowed David Scott (from Gemini 8) and James Irwin to be the first humans to drive on the Moon using the Lunar Roving Vehicle. About 213 pounds of Moon samples were collected on Apollo 16 and 842 pounds of lunar rocks were collected during all of the Apollo missions.43 Apollo 17 was the last Apollo mission to include three different walks over seven hours since the landing crew (Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt) stayed on the surface for three full days while Ronald Evans remained in orbit.44 

But Apollo 17 was not the last time an Apollo spacecraft would be used. In 1975, an Apollo spacecraft with three astronauts docked with a Soyuz spacecraft composed of two cosmonauts. This marked the first international partnership in space. The Apollo-Soyuz mission allowed for two days of joint activities between the teams and allowed the astronauts and cosmonauts to exchange commemorative items. This was designed to test the capabilities of docking between the different space programs which was later pivotal for the success of the International Space Station.45

CONNECTION

Join Mission Control on the Apollo 11 mission in DoGame Software’s Apollo 11 Space Flight Agency - Simulator on Google Play.

Additional Reading

Learn more about Sputnik from NASA’s History Division. There you can find audio of the beep, book recommendations about the early years of space science, translated Russian documents, and more.

The Apollo program has a lot of history and complex politics. Apollo: The Race to the Moon by Charles Murray and Catherine Bly Cox covers the program's twists and turns from the perspective of the NASA leadership at the time. While A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts by Andrew Chaikin explores the program through the lens of the astronauts. 

The best way to learn about visiting space is from first-person accounts from the astronauts who were there. Collect Space has compiled a list of books authored by astronauts including two by Armstrong and four by Shepard. There are also books from cosmonauts including two by Gagarin and seven by Leonov.  

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. ICBMs were developed for wars not space travel, but this technology allowed humans to launch into space. Research some other inventions that were initially made for other sectors, but were found to also be useful in space science.

2. Sputnik 1 opened the possibility of space to the world. With unlimited time, money and brainpower, what possibilities would you like to see in space? What would you want to explore? Where do you want to send probes?

3. Each of the Gemini missions completed a different necessary test. Thinking about the accomplishments of each mission, which Gemini would you have wanted to be an astronaut on? What about that specific mission is most interesting to you?

4. The Soyuz spacecraft was the only craft that could dock with the ISS for decades. Research the Apollo spacecraft and learn why it was not the main ISS docking craft.

5. The Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. has been memorialized as the reason for humans getting to the Moon. What do you think? Could the U.S. have put someone on the Moon without the Soviet Union making the first artificial satellite and doing the first spacewalk?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

On May 25, 1961, President John F. Kennedy announced a moonshot goal for America: to land a man on the Moon and return them safely to Earth before the end of the decade. This was the beginning of the Apollo program which made sending an American citizen to the lunar surface a top government priority - a feat that would put Americans ahead of the Soviet Union in the Cold War Era Space Race. A monumental effort involving extensive time and money, a workforce of around half a billion people got to work making the Apollo dream possible. During the 1960s and 1970s, 17 missions were conducted using a Saturn V rocket to reach the Apollo program goals. Through some trial and error with both uncrewed and crewed spacecraft missions, the Apollo program successfully landed 12 astronauts on the Moon. Their job was to conduct scientific research and return lunar rocks back to Earth, many of which you can find in space museums across the country today!1,2 The Apollo era showed humanity what was possible with space exploration. Apollo 7 showed the world that astronauts can orbit Earth using NASA rocket technology, Apollo 8 proved that humans could circle the Moon, and Apollo 11 marked the first mission where human beings - Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin - stepped foot on a planetary body outside of Earth. By Apollo 17, the Moon was more in reach than before the program started.1 

[Figure 2]

Apollo shuttles. Source: NASA

When the Apollo program ended, the continued effort to keep humans in space did not. Some officials hoped to make it to Mars as the next challenge, a reflection of what the world thought possible after the Apollo program, but NASA turned their focus to orbiting research stations to advance the possibility of long-term occupancy of humans living and working in space.3 Soviet Salyut 1 was the first station launched in 1971 with an objective to support two crews over six months. Unfortunately, design errors in transporting spacecraft Soyuz 10 prevented the first crew of cosmonauts from opening their ferry hatch. The second crew spent 23 days aboard the station, but on their way home an air leak caused a tragic accident resulting in the death of three cosmonauts.4 Skylab was the first successful U.S. space station, complete with a workshop, solar observatory, hundreds of science experiments, and other space research capabilities. It was in orbit for only six months and occupied three crews in the station who added to a growing collection of space research.5 The Space Shuttle program came soon after, allowing for many decades of important space research. This program consisted of more than 800 crew members, three million pounds of cargo sent into orbit, and 135 missions amongst the five orbiters in operation!6 In this lesson, you will explore more of the post-Apollo developments from Skylab and the Space Shuttle program.

Skylab

The design and idea of an orbital space station was first proposed by famous rocket engineer Wernher von Braun. The purpose of NASA’s Skylab was to advance space research, especially that which explores the impacts of space on the human body. The final design of Skylab consisted of a working, living and sleeping compartment for the astronaut crew which contained a laboratory for conducting life science experiments, an Airlock Module for conducting space walks, a docking area for Apollo spacecraft and Earth science testing equipment, and the Apollo Telescope Mount for power management and other observations.7 Skylab successfully launched in 1973, but had a rocky start and ran into some challenges over the course of six years. In 1979, the space shuttle had to boost Skylab back into orbit when it was discovered that it was descending back to Earth. This landed debris into the Indian Ocean and onto parts of Western Australia, instilling fear into many people around the world.8  

So, how did Skylab contribute to the advancement of space exploration? This orbiting workshop conducted 270 biomedical and life science experiments, solar astronomy investigations, Earth observations, material processing, and recorded data on physiological responses of the astronauts during space flight. This research set the stage for long-duration spaceflight, with everything from nutrition and exercise to biometric data being monitored in the astronauts.9 Astronauts conducted a lot of experiments and expressed the high demand of the workload on board. As a result, astronauts today are assigned space psychologists to help them process the amount of work being assigned to them so that they feel supported and heard.10 Skylab research has also resulted in a strict exercise routine for astronauts to reduce bone loss, muscle atrophy and the other harmful effects of space on the human body.11 Skylab opened the opportunity for U.S. secondary school and college students to create experiments designed for space.12 Throughout the Skylab’s operation, over 4,000 students submitted experiment proposals to NASA with 25 selected and tested.13 Skylab’s research officially ended in 1974, but the research continued on the space shuttles and on the International Space Station (ISS) for years to come.14 The legacy of Skylab continues on today as commercial space stations and NASA’s Deep Space Gateway aim to continue research on long-term human space travel into deeper areas of outer space.15

Skylab crews conducted fundamental research involving long-duration human spaceflight and education outreach with student-created proposals. The human body is impacted by space and without this research, there would be little knowledge on how to adapt and protect people living and working in this extreme environment. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

Skylab’s success would not have been possible without the collaboration and ingenuity of many space professionals, especially during times of emergency. Learn more in the Saving Skylab documentary. 

Space Shuttle Development

NASA began early designs of the space shuttle back in the 1950s from the Department of Defense. This was long before the Apollo 11 Moon landing when the thought of an reusable launch vehicle (RLV) began.16 Over the course of several years, many designs were considered - especially those that allowed for a reusable shuttle - but many were rejected due to high cost. Affordability was a key factor in approval of a space shuttle design and in 1972, a partially reusable, two-stage space shuttle design was approved by President Richard Nixon.17 The Space Shuttle program had two goals for NASA: 1) to provide a reliable, reusable space vehicle to carry astronauts to a space station where research and engineering studies would be conducted, and 2) to offer a multi-purpose way to deliver satellites into space to replace satellite launchers Atlas-Centaur, Delta and Titan rockets.18 With the successes of the Apollo program in mind, there was optimism with the development of the space shuttle as engineers anticipated it to be in service by 1977. However, the cost of a two-stage system and the partnership with the U.S. Air Force (which required a higher payload than anticipated) pushed the first successful launch of Columbia to April 12, 1981.19 Columbia was the first shuttle to reach space and over the next twenty years, it carried dozens of astronauts into space. Unfortunately, a tragedy happened in 2003 due to the failure of safety checks prior to reentry and seven astronauts lost their lives.20 This delayed space shuttle flights for two years and the investigations into the accident guided future safety measures.21

Officially called the Space Transportation System (STS), the final design of the space shuttle consists of four main components: the External Tank which contains liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen (essentially the gas tank of the shuttle), two Solid Rocket Boosters that provide additional thrust, and an Orbiter vehicle (or space shuttle) that houses the astronauts, payloads and contains the three Space Shuttle Main Engines that power the flight.22 It is designed to travel up to 400 miles into the atmosphere and its development marks the first reusable spacecraft to send humans into orbit. The space shuttle fleet consisted of five reusable spacecraft that collectively flew 135 missions, orbited Earth 21,152 times, traveled up to 542,398,878 total miles, contributed to the construction of the ISS, and sent 355 people from 16 different countries (306 men and 49 women) into orbit to conduct research and advance human space exploration.23 The shuttle opened the opportunity for non-military personnel to become astronauts as the payload specialists or mission specialists. It was also designed to carry crews of four to seven people, but could also hold up to eight people. The significance of these new positions meant more people from all backgrounds could now become astronauts. The larger spacecraft greatly increased the ranges of physical size for astronauts onboard compared to the small, tight quarters of previous missions on Apollo, Gemini or Mercury. The Space Shuttle program paved the way for women and racialized people to join the astronaut corps and go to orbit as was the case with Mercury 13 or with the first African American astronaut Robert H. Lawrence, Jr.24,25,26 

The development of the space shuttle allowed for a consistent presence of humans living and working in space for over 30 years. Without this development, humans would know a lot less about the space environment. 

  Explore some descriptive facts about the space shuttle orbiter fleet. This will also serve as a preview into the next lesson (Learn more in lesson 4.4: The Shuttle Era).

[Figure 3]

Source: NASA

Additional Reading

Review the article in the Smithsonian highlighting the Best Books About the Apollo Program and Landing on the Moon.

Read more about SkyLab in Skylab: America's Space Station by David Shayler.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. How did the early Space Age in the 1960s (Apollo Era) set the stage for the space innovations we see today?

2. Investigate the successes and failures of all 17 Apollo missions. How did the failures drive the successes? How did Americans overcome the mission accidents and incidents?

3. How does space affect human physiology and psychology? A lot is known about this today. Conduct your own research!

4. Why is cost important in the approval process for space missions? What other industries make decisions around cost?

5. How does the design of the space shuttle compare to other rocket designs?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

The Space Shuttle Era was an inspirational 30-year period of historical moments, setting records and pushing the boundaries of human access to space. Over the course of these influential years, the Space Shuttle program flew 135 total missions, collectively aided in the construction of the International Space Station (ISS), consistently carried a diverse group of 355 total astronauts into orbit, launched and repaired satellites that contribute to modern-day communication, and added to the wealth of space research knowledge we regularly rely on for space missions today.1 The space shuttles collectively flew over 500 million miles, spent 1,300 days in orbit, and docked to the ISS more than 35 times.2 Extensive hours of work, training and dedication was put towards the success of this program that continues to inspire people around the world.

[Figure 2]

Components of the space shuttle. Source: NASA

Each space shuttle in the program was named after influential ships of science and exploration: Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavor.3 The Space Shuttle program had two goals for NASA: 1) to provide a reliable, reusable space vehicle to carry astronauts to a space station where research and engineering studies would be conducted, and 2) to offer a multi-purpose way to deliver satellites (and probes) into space to replace satellite launchers Atlas-Centaur, Delta, and Titan rockets.4 These goals were achieved by the conclusion of the program in 2011, and the legacy and valuable knowledge gained from the shuttle flights still lives on in mission work today. In this lesson, you will learn more about the contributions of each of the five orbiters in the Space Shuttle fleet as well as the astronauts who made the work possible.

Enterprise (1972-1985)

The first space shuttle Enterprise was constructed in 1972 as a prototype or test shuttle. It had no engines or heat shielding, meaning it was never intended to make it all the way to space. Despite this shuttle never making it into orbit, this spacecraft made significant contributions to the Space Shuttle program and brought popularity to the project.5 Enterprise operated like a “deadstick” glider, where five drop tests allowed NASA astronauts to fly the shuttle back to Earth to get a feel for how future shuttles would fly.6 Aerodynamic tests were also done to determine how the flight of the spacecraft would change when attached to the top of a modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA). The SCA would release Enterprise at 24,000 feet and crewmembers, such as past Apollo mission crewmember Fred Haise, would land the shuttle back to Earth.7 Enterprise was retired in 1985 where it was put on public display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, a part of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum until 2012.8 In 2003, space hardware from Enterprise was used to aid in the “aging spacecraft” investigation after the Columbia shuttle disaster.9 Today, Enterprise can be viewed at the Intrepid Sea, Air and Space Museum in New York City.10

[Figure 3]

Official NASA Enterprise Logo. Source: NASA

Enterprise proved to the world that space transportation in a shuttle spacecraft was possible. This spacecraft prototype provided data to drive the production of an additional five space shuttles that advanced human understanding of space. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

The first test flight of Enterprise in 1977 was filmed and recorded, adding to the popularity of the Space Shuttle program. Watch it here! 

Columbia (1981-2003)

Columbia was the first space orbiter in the Space Transportation System (STS) program to fly to space. On April 12, 1981, astronauts John Young and Bob Crippen were launched into space on Columbia from the Kennedy Space Center’s Launch Complex in Florida on the STS-1 mission.11 The first four Columbia flights were dedicated to ensuring the safety and operational success of the shuttle components, including the testing of a robotic arm and astronauts completing evaluation tests.12 Of all the space shuttles, Columbia was the heaviest due to special design features related to the main body of the aircraft.13 In Columbia’s 22 years in operation, it completed 27 missions including over 300 days in space and 4,000 orbits around Earth.14 Columbia helped transport many important objects into space including satellites, scientific equipment like X-rays and UV telescopes, lasers for Earth science research, and the servicing of larger space telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope.15 

[Figure 4]

The Columbia on its final approach at NASA's Armstrong Flight Research Center. Source: NASA

Columbia also contributed to advancing space research by collaborating with the European Space Agency’s SpaceLab on numerous missions to conduct around 70 experiments per flight in disciplines such as plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material science, astrobiology, and various Earth science observations.16 On February 1, 2003, Columbia was leaving Earth and a piece of debris fell from the external tank and damaged a wing. The crew did not check the damage, and trouble struck when the orbiter re-entered the atmosphere. Columbia disintegrated on its descent back to Earth and all seven crew members, including the first female Indian astronaut Kalpana Chawla, were tragically lost in the accident. The Space Shuttle program stalled for two years while an investigation was conducted.17 Around 84,000 pieces of debris from the disaster were recovered, making up only 40 percent of the wreckage, and debris is still being found in areas of Texas today.18 Hardware recovered from the wreckage, and honorary memorials of the crewmembers, are on display in the Forever Remembered exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.19 

Columbia was the first shuttle to carry out the core goals of the Space Shuttle program, and many valuable lessons were learned along the way. More is understood about the space environment because of the work of astronauts who dedicated their lives to human discovery. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

Scientists on Earth could monitor experiments being conducted on board the SpaceLab, which was first mounted inside Columbia. This was a collaborative effort among many countries. Watch how much work went into this mission! 

Challenger (1983-1986)

In April of 1983, the second space shuttle orbiter was launched. It was originally intended to be used for testing purposes, but its lighter design made it a prime candidate for joining the space shuttle fleet in orbit.20 On the fourth mission, astronaut Bruce McCandless II conducted the first untethered spacewalk where he ventured 230 feet from the shuttle - becoming what is considered the first human Earth-orbiting “satellite”!21 This mission (STS-41B) landed at Kennedy Space Center where it originally launched, marking the first shuttle to land at its launch site.22 Challenger also transported the first astronaut that conducted the first satellite repair in space, George Nelson, who was strapped to a Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) during his work.23 During its three years in operation, Challenger flew on nine missions, spent 62 days in space and orbited the Earth 1,000 times.24 Challenger launched numerous satellites which aided in global communications including the first tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) which allows astronauts to better communicate to mission control on Earth. Challenger also contributed to the SpaceLab missions starting in 1985. Historical astronauts were sent into orbit on Challenger, including the first female American astronaut Sally Ride, the first American female spacewalker Kathryn Sullivan, the first African-American astronaut to fly into space Guion Bluford, and the first Canadian in space Marc Garneau.25 Challenger also prioritized education on Earth as it offered the first Teacher in Space program initiated by President Ronald Reagan to “inspire students, honor teachers, and spur interest in mathematics, science, and space exploration.”26

[Figure 5]

Space Shuttle Challenger makes a landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California on Nov. 6, 1985. Source: NASA

Many years before the Columbia disaster, Challenger exploded at liftoff on January 28, 1986 (STS-51-L), shocking the world as millions watched the accident live. This disaster marked the first major shuttle accident in the history of the program. Challenger had seven passengers onboard, including the first teacher in the Teacher in Space Program, Christa McAuliffe.27 President Reagan appointed a special committee to investigate the explosion and it was determined that the cold temperatures caused a failure of an “O-ring” seal in one of the rockets. There was a two-year hiatus for shuttle launches during this investigation.28 Hardware recovered from the wreckage, and honorary memorials of the crewmembers, are also on display in the Forever Remembered exhibit at Kennedy Space Center in Florida.29 

Although short-lived, Challenger made history both in the work of the astronauts on board in advancing space research and among those who flew on board. Seeing a more diverse crew for the first time in history inspired the world. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

Sally Ride was a mission specialist on Challenger (STS-7) who specialized in the robotic arm. She was a true inspiration for women in space. Her colleagues were impressed by her discipline and humility.

Discovery (1984-2011)

Discovery was the third shuttle in the fleet and conducted the most spaceflights of any spacecraft to date.30 Discovery was the first shuttle launched with improved safety measures after the Challenger accident and investigation.31 On Discovery (STS-31) in 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope was successfully deployed from the highest altitude ever reached by a shuttle at 600 kilometers (372 miles).32 Discovery was also the first shuttle to dock at the ISS, marking the first time an orbiter in the Space Shuttle program delivered a variety of supplies and equipment to the ISS crew.33 The astronauts onboard Discovery (STS-116) also completed one of the most complicated shuttle missions in NASA’s history: to deliver permanent power to the ISS which involved 13 days of extensive electrical work, solar array installations, and the most number of spacewalks (four) in a single mission!34 Discovery also launched many communication satellites into space, carried scientific instruments to aid in research experiments, carried the first member of the U.S. Congress into space (Senator Jake Garn), made many trips to service and supply the ISS, and launched a robotic sun probe Ulysses in 1990.35,36,37 During its 27 years in operation, Discovery flew on 39 missions, spent 366 days in space, and orbited Earth around 5,830 times.38 Discovery is publicly on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.39 

Discovery was NASA’s busiest shuttle, contributing significantly to the transportation of astronauts, supplies, probes, scientific instruments, and other space objects that propelled human space exploration forward. This shuttle still inspires space missions today. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

STS-133 was the final launch of Discovery in 2011. Watch this launch video that is also on display at the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. 

Atlantis (1985-2011)

Atlantis was the fourth shuttle in the fleet and was a reliable orbiter for many years.40 During its 26 years in operation, Atlantis flew on 33 missions, spent 305 days in space, and orbited Earth around 4,848 times.41 Atlantis deployed the planetary probe Magellan to Venus, one of NASA’s most successful deep space missions. Atlantis also deployed Galileo to Jupiter, NASA’s first probe to orbit another planet and which has aided in the discovery of much of what is known about the largest planet in the solar system.42,43 Atlantis is the first shuttle to launch an interplanetary probe into outer space.44 Atlantis also deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, a satellite that has surveyed space for gamma rays from 1991 to the early 2000s.45 Atlantis contributed to the spirit of international collaboration and peace as it became the first space shuttle to dock with a former rival in the Space Race, Russia. Atlantis docked with Russian station Mir in 1995 to form the largest satellite to ever orbit Earth up until that point. NASA called this a “new era of friendship and cooperation” in Russian-American relations.46 Atlantis spent the rest of its time aiding in the construction of the ISS by delivering and working on solar arrays, airlocks, truss, and installing the laboratory module Destiny.47 Today, Atlantis is on display in the Space Shuttle Atlantis exhibit at Kennedy Space Center in Florida.48

Atlantis was a reliable space shuttle that was host to many astronauts over the course of its lifetime. Its legacy in the Space Shuttle program is important and meaningful in space exploration missions today. 

DID YOU KNOW?

Fuel tanks are not a reusable part of a shuttle and are discarded during flight to burn up in the atmosphere.49 An Atlantis shuttle discarding its fuel tank was filmed in high-definition using advanced cameras. Watch it here! 

Endeavour (1992-2011)

Endeavour was built to replace Challenger, making it an updated orbiter with new steering mechanisms, plumbing, a drag chute for landing, and electrical systems that allowed for longer duration missions.50 Endeavour’s first launch was on May 7, 1992 (STS-49). The goal of the mission was to repair and release a communication satellite. After an intensive eight-hour space walk - the second-longest ever recorded - the mission was a success despite its challenges.51 During its 30 years in operation, Endeavour flew on 25 missions, spent 300 days in space, and orbited Earth around 4,671 times.52 The STS-61 mission is one of the most challenging servicing missions ever in the shuttle program. Its goal was to conduct the first repair on the Hubble Space Telescope which involved 25 hours of work, five back-to-back space walks, and two teams of astronauts working to successfully complete the maintenance that would repair Hubble’s “vision.”53 Endeavour contributed many additions to the construction of the ISS, including STS-88 which added the first U.S. component and STS-100 which installed a robotic arm.54 Endeavour is the shuttle that carried the second teacher, Barbara Morgan, into space through the Teacher in Space Program (STS-118). This was 16 years after the death of teacher Christa McAuliffe aboard Challenger.55 Endeavour is now on public display at the Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center at the California Science Center in Los Angeles.56

Endeavour continued the mission goals of the Space Shuttle program, and added to the work of expanding human capacity in space. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

Without Endeavour astronauts successfully fixing the Hubble Space Telescope lens in 1993, we would have less knowledge of our universe today. The success of this telescope was a collaborative effort among the astronauts of the Space Shuttle program. Watch the NASA Goddard documentary about the construction, launch and historical repair of the telescope. 

Additional Reading

Review and select a book that sounds interesting to you on NASA’s list of Important Books on the History of the Space Shuttle.

Learn more about the lives of Columbia astronauts by reading the biographies of the crewmembers that were lost in the disaster here. 

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. How would space exploration be different without the contributions of the Space Shuttle program?

2. How did the Challenger and Columbia disasters change the Space Shuttle program? Although failure should be avoided at all costs, how did this add to future successes?

3. How have transportation systems like the Space Shuttle program changed today? In other words, how do astronauts get to the ISS now that the Space Shuttle program has ended?

4. How did the Space Shuttle program change space exploration on a larger scale? Think about other chapters and make connections.

5. What current NASA mission compares to the Space Shuttle program in terms of goals, objectives and vision?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

Have you ever looked into the sky and saw an extremely bright “star” that’s brighter than the rest? The International Space Station (ISS) is the third brightest object in the sky next to the Moon and the Sun…and every three days it passes over you looking like a fast moving star in the sky from Earth’s perspective! That “star” is a 925,000 pound spacecraft, assembled in orbit, and housing a diverse group of trained astronauts from all over the world that are working, living and communicating back to Earth from 250 miles above their home planet!1 

[Figure 2]

The International Space Station in orbit around Earth. Source: NASA

One lesson that has been learned from the ISS is that a diverse team is more powerful than working alone. Yet, the ISS is not the first station in space. It follows Russian stations Salyut 1, Almas and Mir - the first American station, Skylab.2 The ISS is the largest space station to ever orbit Earth. The ISS has a profound legacy because its creation involved partnerships of 15 countries and it has received visitors from 20 different countries.3,4 Over a 12-year-period, the construction of the station required over 80 rocket launches and mission contributions from five major space agencies.5 The day-to-day work on the ISS is mainly dedicated to advancements in space research through scientific investigations and experiments involving microgravity. Findings from these studies are helping people on Earth and are preparing humanity for long-duration space travel.6 The ISS is also offering inspiration to current - and future - generations. Its legacy is meaningful because it truly represents humanity working together to achieve a common goal that will benefit all. In this chapter, you will learn more about the evolution of the space station, discover more about its impact, and gain insight into the collaborative effort that was required to make it all possible. 

Space Station Freedom 

Announced in 1984 at the State of the Union address by President Ronald Reagan, Space Station Freedom was a NASA-directed project to construct and launch the first crewed, Earth-orbiting space station.7,8 This project marked the first internationally-collaborative effort among NASA, The National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) to create a multinational, permanent space station.9 The goal of this space station was to learn more about the long-term operations of living and working in space, with the hopes of eventually using this to get humans to other planets like Mars.10 Space Station Freedom plans ran into trouble in the design process, with many plans failing to get approved by the National Research Council. Once designs were approved, budgetary cuts postponed construction and launch for some time. In 1990, the final design was found to be 23% overweight, over the allowed budget, and a redesign was necessary to allow for a successful launch.11 In 1993, Russia and the U.S. merged projects to what we know today as the ISS.12 At the time, Russia had already launched the first space station, Salyut 1, which incorporated a module (Zvezda Service Module) that would later serve as the core Russian segment of the ISS.13

Although Space Station Freedom never came to be, it was the start of an international dream to partner on space exploration and space innovation. The idea alone brought nations together regardless of Earth-bound politics. This is why space matters.

DID YOU KNOW?

The design for Space Station Freedom involved a “tower” to house astronauts and solar arrays branching out above or to the sides. NASA did not build the actual station, but constructed a prototype of the design that looks very real! Check it out! 

The International Space Station

The ISS has a long and active history. People have been living and working onboard the ISS on a daily basis since the year 2000.14 It is the largest space station currently in low Earth orbit (LEO), and is collaboratively operated by space agencies such as NASA, Roscosmos (Russia), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), ESA, and CSA. It is not owned by a single nation, but each country’s contribution is legally managed through the ISS’ Intergovernmental Agreement in an effort to keep peace.15 The ISS took more than 10 years to build in space, involving around 30 crewed missions - many by the Space Shuttle program - between the years of 1998 and 2011. Additional modules were added through the year 2021.16 The first piece was added by Russia in 1998 and consisted of the control module Zarya, which was later attached to the Unity laboratory by the Endeavour Space Shuttle.17 The purpose of the ISS is to support space research and activities that would advance human capacity in space exploration in order to “improve the quality of life” and prepare for future missions beyond Earth’s orbit. In simplest terms, it is a space laboratory!18 The first crew to live and work on the ISS was in 2000 and consisted of NASA astronaut Bill Shepherd and cosmonauts, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev. Their job on this mission, Expedition 1, was to kick start ISS and “open” it for business for the 244 astronauts to come.19 

Typically, there is an international crew of about seven astronauts living and working on the ISS at all times, but sometimes there are 13 during times of crew exchanges!20,21 Astronauts usually spend about six months onboard the station and conduct versatile work involving science experiments, station maintenance, and outreach with media, school classrooms and social media.22 The ISS has conducted groundbreaking research since its inception. The Cold Atom Lab produced the fifth state of matter in space, called the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), opening up areas of research that are not available on Earth.23 In 2017, the Genes in the Space-3 team processed the first sequence DNA of unknown microbes and successfully identified them while in space - a technology that can still be used today.24 Disease and drug development research on the ISS for conditions like cancer, gum disease and Duchenne muscular dystrophy have aided in clinical trials being conducted on Earth.25 Analyzing and assessing human impact on the Earth is easy to observe from the ISS. Experiments involving water, land, air, forests, oceans, and other aspects of the Earth are being investigated on board through remote sensing, and the longitudinal data is important for research related to climate change.26 

[Figure 3]

The ISS has been host to many significant experiments, research projects and outreach efforts. Source: NASA

In more than 20 years of operation, the ISS has had over 2.6 million students from primary and secondary schools across the world design, create and use collected data from their experiments carried out by the astronauts onboard.27 Work on the ISS has involved 800 experiments designed by youth, which continues as the ISS is in operation.28 Many science experiments involve the impacts of microgravity on the human body in the ISS microgravity laboratory, and they also test products such as 3D printers or even espresso machines!29,30 Microgravity research assesses the physiological impacts of weightlessness on the human body, including cardiovascular and sensorimotor disturbances. The ISS year-long mission was a study into the long-term impacts of a year’s time in space on the human body. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a total of 340 consecutive days in space and his physiological changes were compared to his twin brother, with results showing some lasting changes and some temporary changes to the body over time.31 Peggy Whitson holds the record for most time spent in space with 665 consecutive days.32 

There is still lots of work to be done. The year 2020 marked the 20th anniversary of the ISS, and plans to decommission the space station by 2031 are in place, with some partners pulling out in 2024.33 At this point, more than 2,800 research investigations have been conducted and over 20 countries have been represented on the ISS as of 2022.34 Some consider this space station a “bridge” between nations that has contributed to the betterment of human life. This is why space matters.

CONNECTION

Conduct your own ISS experiment, with adult supervision, by participating in the Quest for Space challenge. Some of these experiments have even make it to the ISS to collect data in space! 

Russian-U.S. Collaboration

Russia and the U.S. have come a long way since the Cold War Era Space Race. The Russian-U.S. partnership on space exploration began in 1993 when plans for the ISS were solidified. From the beginning of this partnership, Russian launch vehicles were used to carry hardware and supplies to the ISS, in addition to a Russian emergency escape vehicle and Russian module (compartment) additions such as the Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC) system. This partnership saved NASA billions of dollars at the start.35 As of 2020, Russia’s space agency Roscosmos has sent 49 cosmonauts to the ISS and NASA has sent 151 astronauts, each contributing significant work to the maintenance and forward movement of space research.36 The operation of the ISS is a true partnership and Russia manages about half of the station. The ISS was deliberately designed as such so that countries would be dependent on one another for operations. For example, NASA’s solar panel provides power to the station and Russia operates the technology that positions the station where it needs to be in orbit in order to receive enough solar energy… preventing the ISS from falling out of orbit!37 Russian spacecraft have also been extremely reliable for getting astronauts and cosmonauts to the ISS, but recently NASA has been utilizing SpaceX more and more for this service.38

[Figure 4]

Soyuz-2.1a rocket booster with cargo transport spacecraft. Source: AP

The Russian-U.S. collaboration is still happening today, but political tensions fueled by the war in Ukraine and sanctions have caused a shift in geopolitics that has carried over to the space relationship. Russia announced in 2022 that it will withdraw from its commitment to the space station in 2024, but has agreed to continued support until then. This change will mean the U.S. will need to utilize the help of other countries to continue operation.35 NASA Administrator Bill Nelson released a statement sharing that “NASA is committed to the safe operation of the International Space Station through 2030, and is coordinating with our partners.”35 But even if the future of the Russian-U.S. space partnership is in question, the legacy of this coalition will remain. 

Collaborative space partnerships, like that of Russia and the U.S., allow for better mission outcomes. Cooperation can ebb and flow, but these partnerships model the very progress that can be made with international, unified mission goals.

DID YOU KNOW?

Roscosmos and NASA have committed to continuing their partnership with the ISS until 2024. See U.S. astronauts and cosmonauts working together in space on missions that last as long as one year! 

Broad International Collaboration

The operation and construction of the ISS has been the “most politically complex space exploration program ever undertaken.”39 Organization, cooperation and clear communication are extremely important in effectively managing and operating the station. The five main international partners in the operation of the ISS include the United States (NASA), Russia (Roscosmos), Japan (JAXA), Europe (ESA), and Canada (CSA). The ESA member countries consist of Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.27 Each space agency has contributed in some way to the station, such as the ESA building and launching the Columbus orbital science laboratory facility in 2008, CSA contributing the Dextre robotic hand, Russia adding the first module (component) Zarya in 1998, and JAXA adding the Kibo science facility module.40,41,42 These highlights only touch upon the international contributions made to the ISS and its day-to-day operations. The station is managed throughout the world at various space agency centers, headquarters and facilities (see image below).43 There have been 20 different countries represented by ISS crew members. These included 242 individuals, 34 were women and nine were tourists as of 2022.44 Check out the list of names and associated countries in this list by NASA here!

International collaboration and representation is a valuable goal of the ISS program. Without the financial buy-in and technical expertise of many countries, pulling off a space station of this magnitude would have been extremely unlikely. Space exploration is better when humanity works together.

  The ISS’ operations and management sites around the world. These sites all contribute something to the success of the ISS.

[Figure 5]

Credit: NASA

CONNECTION

Sign up for ISS “Spot the Station” alerts from anywhere in the world! The space station offers international inspiration to people everywhere.

The Shuttle Gap

Reliable transportation to the ISS is an essential part of mission operation. NASA’s Space Shuttle program was used until 2011 to take astronauts to the station, most notably Discovery became the first space shuttle to dock with ISS in 1999 delivering the STS-96 crew on board.45 In 2011, the Space Shuttle program ended with the launch of orbiter Atlantis, leaving a gap in space transportation to the ISS for launches from American soil on American spacecraft. During this gap, the Russian Soyuz was the only way to transport people to the ISS.46 The Soyuz (meaning “union” in Russian) is a series of Russian spacecrafts in development since the 1960s and is the longest running human spaceflight program in the history of space exploration.47 The Soyuz launcher and spacecraft share the same name which is different from other agencies.48 Soyuz can take astronauts to the ISS and return them safely to Earth, and at least one of these spacecraft is attached to the ISS at all times - acting like a lifeboat in case of emergencies!49 As of 2022, Soyuz is still in operation. In 2020, it broke a record in getting the spacecraft to the ISS in three hours rather than the six it usually takes. This flight comprised female astronaut Kate Rubins and Russian cosmonaut Sergey Ryhikov.50 Soyuz was not the only transportation to space after the successful launch and docking of SpaceX’s Crew Dragon spacecraft to the station in 2022. The Dragon spacecraft had been sending cargo to space since 2012 (Cargo Dragon) and in 2022, Crew Dragon carried cargo and four astronauts to the ISS. It was also successful in returning them safely back to Earth.51 To date, the Dragon spacecraft has made 31 total trips to the ISS, and SpaceX continues its work in transporting to Earth’s orbit.52 In 2022, NASA purchased five additional Crew Dragon spacecraft from SpaceX for space transportation purposes.53

It is essential that trained astronauts and supplies make it to the ISS. International cooperation made this possible, especially when the service was only offered by one country. 

DID YOU KNOW?

It takes about three hours for a spacecraft like Soyuz to reach the ISS with astronaut passengers. Watch its journey here! 

Additional Reading

Read the words of astronauts, many of which conducted work on the ISS, from this list of astronaut-authored books! http://www.collectspace.com/resources/books_astronauts.html

Read a more complex, technical overview of the construction and work on the ISS in The International Space Station: Building for the Future by John Catchpool.

PBS produced a documentary highlighting Scott Kelly’s experience in space. Watch A Year in Space to learn more about the science of long-duration spaceflight. https://www.pbs.org/show/year-space/

Write to a NASA astronaut or follow them on social media. https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/active

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. Even though Space Station Freedom did not have its designs approved, was it still important? Why or why not?

2. What other space experiments were conducted on the ISS? Did all of them have groundbreaking results? Do some research!

3. How does the space environment make for a unique laboratory? What is the advantage of conducting experiments in different environments involving different boundaries of physics?

4. How does collaboration on a project (or mission) change relationships, in your experience? In your opinion, would the ISS be as successful without this collaboration and cooperation between nations?

5. How has the commercial space industry changed the dynamics of the ISS?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

Over budget and behind schedule: these are the words that have plagued NASA human space travel projects since the Apollo missions.1 About 50% of NASA’s annual budget is spent on human spaceflight activities2 and they no longer even operate their own crewed spacecraft, having turned to commercial partners. In 2010, President Barack Obama committed to a new way of launching astronauts into space when he opened the private sector for astronaut transportation and reoriented the Space Shuttle program. His space policy paved the way for the U.S. to have at least two ways of getting astronauts to space by 2025.3 This has led to the need for commercial spaceflight. Elon Musk, the founder of SpaceX, wants to “make space flight accessible to almost anyone.”4 Jeff Bezos, founder of Blue Origin, believes “we need to take all heavy industry, all polluting industry, and move it into space. And keep Earth as this beautiful gem of a planet that it is.”5 Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Galactic thinks “space travel can transform things back here for the better” especially when people are able to look back to Earth from space and see the planet in all its glory.6 All of these companies are able to spend funds differently, sometimes more efficiently, and from different sources in addition to NASA. This can all make space travel more affordable and therefore, more common. Making it more common ensures that more people will be able to take advantage of it.7

[Figure 2]

During the Gemini 4 mission, astronaut Edward White performed the United States' first extravehicular activity, or spacewalk. Source: NASA

Commercial Cargo and Crew Program

NASA’s Commercial Crew and Cargo Program was designed to infuse the private sector with funds and the direction to increase the probability of commercial and private space travel.8 When the program was first initiated in 2010, private companies like SpaceX were just starting to formulate plans for human space travel.9 The program has two parts: (1) Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) that fund private cargo space programs, and (2) Crew Development (CCDev) which funds the crew portion of the mission. COTS has given $800 million to Orbital ATK and SpaceX to develop lower-cost cargo launches and vessels.10 CCDev has given $320 million to Blue Origin, Boeing, Paragon, Sierra Nevada, SpaceX, and the United Launch Alliance to develop private human spaceflight capabilities.11 The program had four phases with money contingent on companies meeting certain milestones for each phase. SpaceX and Boeing were the only two companies awarded the phase four contracts in 2014.12

DID YOU KNOW?

CCDev led the first U.S. based flight back to the International Space Station (ISS) since 2011 with SpaceX’s rocket and capsule.  

Falcon 9 and Cargo Dragon

SpaceX has received a lot of media attention for its efforts to make commercial spaceflight a reality. It is doing this mainly with its rocket (Falcon 9) and cargo capsule (Dragon). 

Falcon 9 is the launch rocket designed by SpaceX with the purpose of being re-usable.13 SpaceX has been using the Falcon 9 to bring the Dragon spacecraft to the ISS since 2012. Falcon 9 has been running cargo to the ISS with over 25 deliveries. It is also used to deliver crewed missions to the ISS and is currently the rocket of choice for SpaceX's Starlink satellite system.14 Falcon 9 rockets have had over 160 launches, over 120 landings, and over 100 reflights as of June 2022. The reflight capability is a new development in space and will bring the cost of space access down for everyone.15 Falcon 9 (learn more in chapter 4.1 - History of Rocketry) is a two-stage rocket. This means that there is a rocket that launches then a second one that detaches and powers up to fly. The first stage fires its nine engines for just over two minutes to get the rocket and payload off of Earth’s surface. When the second stage detaches to fire its one engine (for almost seven minutes), the first stage returns to either a drone ship or a solid landing pad to be reused again.16  

[Figure 3]

The upgraded version of SpaceX’s Cargo Dragon spacecraft is seen before it rolls out to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Source: NASA

Falcon 9 was used to deliver a Dragon spacecraft into space to deliver supplies to the ISS in 2012. The Dragon spacecraft was named after the 1960’s folk song, “Puff, the Magic Dragon” and it became public in 2006. The Dragon is the first private, uncrewed space capsule to be safely recovered back on Earth after launch. The Dragon can carry over 13,000 pounds (6,000 kilograms) of cargo to the ISS. The cargo stored in the pressurized capsule and the unpressurized cargo bay is stored in the trunk.17 Typically, about 500 pounds (240 kilograms) of this weight is dedicated to food supplies for the astronauts and the rest is equipment and experiments.18 It is also the first capsule designed to bring these large qualities of cargo back to Earth making it a key component for future scientific endeavors.19 A Dragon spacecraft exploded in flight to the ISS in 2015 and a Falcon 9 (and Dragon spacecraft) exploded on the launch pad in 2017. However, the majority of missions have been a success.20 

DID YOU KNOW?

The Falcon 9’s ability to re-land and relaunch will save millions of dollars per commercial flight increasing the accessibility of this experience for more people.  

Crew Dragon

SpaceX’s Dragon capsule was designed to carry crew and not just supplies. The use of the Dragon for supplies was for funding and functioned as a test of concept prior to humans being flown. As a result, it is designed to carry up to seven astronauts.21 In 2019, Crew Dragon (the Dragon version with the extras needed to transport astronauts) successfully completed the first test flight to the ISS. A year later, the Crew Dragon delivered two U.S. astronauts to the ISS becoming the first private company to send crewed spacecraft to space.22 Since then, it has flown an additional five flights, including Inspiration4. Inspiration4 is the first all-civilian mission to launch into orbit. On September 15, 2021, four people (including billionaire Jared Isaacman, physician assistant Hayley Arceneaux, geoscientist Sian Proctor, and engineer Chris Sembroski) flew to about 575 kilometers (355 miles) which is higher than the orbit of the Hubble Space Telescope and the ISS. This is the first step for SpaceX to achieve affordable, commercial interplanetary space travel. Musk’s major goal with SpaceX is to make space travel similar to airline travel in ticketing, convenience and use.23

DID YOU KNOW?

Although the Inspiration4 crew were all civilians, they went through rigorous training and hours of simulations to ensure their safety before the flight. 

On Sunday, May 21, 2023, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched Crew Dragon Freedom from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, carrying the Axiom Space Ax-2 crew destined for the International Space Station (ISS). The Axiom-2 mission also marks SpaceX's 10th human spaceflight mission since beginning services in 2020. The crew consists of Commander Peggy Whiston, a former NASA astronaut, pilot John Shoffner, and Saudi Arabian mission specialists Captain Ali Alqarni and Rayyanah Barnawi of the Saudi Space Commission.23a

This mission is historical as Rayyanah, a STEM cell researcher is the first Saudi woman to travel to space. The crew plan to stay docked with the ISS for 8 days to participate in science, communication, and educational outreach projects. The Saudi Space Commission signed an agreement with Axiom in September 2022, with Axiom being responsible for training Saudi astronauts for human spaceflight and conducting scientific research in space.

DID YOU KNOW?

A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched Crew Dragon Freedom from the Kennedy Space Center, carrying the Axiom Space Ax-2 carrying the first female Saudi astronaut.

Starliner

Boeing is most famous for their large aircraft, but they are also looking to expand their business to commercial space travel. The Starliner was designed after the Apollo spacecraft but with all the advancements in technology and space knowledge added in. Development started in 2011 with models of the capsule being tested for their various features. Boeing released the full-scale mockup in 2014 prior to testing the life-size model. Boeing did not stop at the capsule, also designing a spacesuit for the Starliner astronauts to wear.24 Similar to the Crew Dragon, the Starliner is designed for seven passengers and is reusable. It is also designed to land on dry ground instead of needing a water landing upon reentry.25  In May of 2022, the Starliner spacecraft completed its first successful uncrewed test flight.26 As of June of 2022, NASA assigned Starliner its first crew which consists of Barry Wilmore and Suni Williams set to launch in July of 2023.27

[Figure 4]

Additional Reading

Learn more about all the possibilities with commercialized space travel in the Harvard Business Review.

As with all tourism, there is a desire to ensure that space tourism is sustainable. Learn more about the possibilities and challenges of this in Annette Toivonen’s book, Sustainable Space Tourism: An Introduction.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. NASA has spent millions of dollars funding private companies to develop spaceflight technology. Why is NASA spending funding to prompt commercial space flight?

2. SpaceX and Boeing focus on making their space technology re-launchable. Why do they want to re-use these components? Think about the short-term, long-term, and marketing reasons they would want to do this.

3. In 2010, President Obama stated that the U.S. should have at least two methods for astronauts to get to space by 2025. What do you think of this goal? Do you think it is achievable? 

4. How would you select astronauts for commercial flights? 

5. Do you think there should be more ways to get to space? 

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

Space is an expensive endeavor. Space flights typically cost around $1,200 per pound of payload leaving the Earth.1 This makes space travel and exploration unattainable for many private companies and many smaller nations. There are countries that are able to finance a space agency despite the cost. Some are able to do more, like human flight, while others are just starting on their space exploration journey as a proposed agency. No matter where they are in their process, international cooperation is helping them take their agency to the next level.

While the U.S. and Russia garner the most regular international attention when it comes to space flights, human flight, and the possibility of a Mars crewed landing, the China National Space Agency (CNSA), the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) are also major contributors to international space efforts. 

While this section is just a brief overview of the major national programs, many of the programs are linked to longer sections about their history and current advances.

Agencies With Human Flight Capability

There are currently three national programs with human flight capabilities: ROSCOSMOS (Russian State Corporation for Space Activities), NASA and CNSA. 

ROSCOSMOS emerged out of the Soviet space program (learn more in lesson 4.2 - The Cold War Era). As a result, ROSCOSMOS holds the claim of sending the first man (Yuri Gagarin) into space. The program was technically formed in 1992 at the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when the Russian Federal Space Agency merged with United Rocket and Space Corporation, a joint-stock entity focused on enhancing the Soviet space sector. Throughout its history, the main focus has been on human space flight. In the early days of the agency, it did not have much funding so the little resources available were directed towards the Mir space station and then the International Space Station (ISS). Because of the lack of funding between 1995 and 1998, ROSCOSMOS had to partner with the United States to get crewed missions to and from the Mir space station. Both countries decided to work together to build and operate the ISS. Between 2011 and 2020, Russia was the only agency able to provide transportation for crewed missions to the ISS.2

[Figure 2]

Russian space walk. Credit: NASA

NASA is responsible for the U.S.’ non-military space flight and exploration. NASA started sending human flights into space with Project Mercury in the 1960s (learn more in lesson 4.2 - The Cold War Era). It made history when it sent humans to land on the Moon with Apollo 11 in 1969. NASA collaborated with ROSCOSMOS to continuously populate the ISS since 2000.3 After the Space Shuttle Columbia broke apart during a crewed reentry in 2003, President George W. Bush outlined the end of the shuttle program in 2004.4 NASA has not provided transportation for sending humans into space (without partnering with another agency or private company) since 2011, but has continued to train and support astronauts in their missions aboard other spacecraft.5

CNSA (learn more in lesson 4.8 - China) is the newest government agency to send humans into space. They may be the newest to send humans into space, but their technology and crewed mission timeline has outpaced that of both ROSCOSMOS and NASA. Sending their first crewed mission in 2003, CNSA took 11 years before they performed their first spacewalk. They are also working towards crewed Mars missions within 30 years of their first human flight. 

CONNECTION

One of the great challenges of sending humans into space is maintaining the needed air pressure, both in the capsule as well as in their spacesuit when they perform spacewalks. Learn more about pressure and how it is maintained to keep humans alive in space in NASA’s Classroom Combo: Spacesuit Science (Pressure).

Agencies With Extraterrestrial Landing Capability

The first step for an agency to send humans into space is uncrewed missions. ROSCOSMOS, NASA and CNSA have all successfully sent uncrewed missions into space and have all been successful in extraterrestrial landing of these uncrewed missions. But they are not alone in this area of space flight.

The ESA first landed on Mars in December of 2003. Beagle 2 was sent to Mars with the mission of exploring for signs of life on the Red Planet. After its first radio signal, no further communication was heard from the lander.6 It was officially declared lost in February of 2004, but it wasn’t until 2015 that the lander was found on Mars. Two previous missions from NASA failed to find evidence of the lander, but NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was finally able to find it in high-resolution images. The lander, possible parachute and rear cover were all identified in images sent back to NASA and were shared with ESA.7 This was not the first ESA lander to be sent into space, just the first to reach its destination. In 1997, the Cassini-Huygens mission launched with a destination of Saturn. The mission was a collaboration between ESA NASA and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). ESA was in charge of the Huygens probe which was released from Cassini in December of 2004 to land on the surface of Titan. It successfully made a soft landing on January 14, 2005, making it both ESA’s first successful lander and the first lander on Titan. It only collected data for a little over an hour before the orbiter moved out of the line-of-sight losing radio contact and then the probe’s battery power ran out.8  

JAXA followed the ESA into extraterrestrial landing capabilities. The mini-lander, MINERVA, was launched aboard the Hayabusa spacecraft on May 9, 2003. On November 25, 2005, it landed on the asteroid Itokawa where it stayed for over a month collecting samples before returning to Earth. The capsule containing the samples landed in Australia on June 13, 2010, while the spacecraft burned up upon entry, as planned.9 In 2014, Hayabusa2 was launched with the destination of the asteroid Ryugu. In September of 2018, mini rovers landed on the asteroid. They were able to move around the asteroid, a first for mankind. In February of 2019, the larger craft started touch-down operations to collect samples from the asteroid. Finally in October of 2019, the MINERVA-2 rover was deployed for further exploration of Ryugu. Hayabusa2 returned to Earth on December 5, 2020. Much like the previous mission, the sample capsule was dropped from the spacecraft to land in Australia, but this time the spacecraft was sent back into space.10 The extended mission is to a different, much smaller asteroid called the 1998 KY26.11

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) first sent a craft to the Moon in 2008. Chandrayaan-1’s mission was to orbit the Moon and send an impact probe (designed to relay data during descent but not survive the landing) to the surface.12 The data retrieved from the probe included evidence of water. ISRO decided they wanted to study this further so in 2019 they launched Chandrayaan-2, which contained an orbiter, lander and rover.13 The Vikram lander was deployed on September 7, 2019 targeting the lunar south pole. But it crash landed after losing contact for the last phase of descent.14 Unfortunately, the Vikram lander is tilted on the surface of the Moon so re-establishing contact was unsuccessful even though it appears to be in one piece.15 

DID YOU KNOW?

Hayabusa2 returned 5.4 grams of sample from Ryugu that contained minerals and water. Watch JAXA’s mission overview for Hayabusa2 with English subtitles. 

Agencies with Launch Capabilities

There are many more national agencies with launch capabilities that are currently using these launches to put satellites into Earth’s orbit. These agencies include the Australian Space Agency, the Iranian Space Agency, the Israeli Space Agency, the National Aerospace Development Administration (North Korea), and the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (South Korea).16 The Korea Aerospace Research Institute just launched its first lunar orbiter on August 4, 2022 making it the newest agency to send an orbiter to the moon.17

Even more agencies have launching capabilities as well as the abilities to launch multiple satellites at once. These agencies include the Brazilian Space Agency, the ASI (which can also operate extraterrestrial probes), the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (France), and the State Space Agency of Ukraine.18,19

The U.S. also has a military branch dedicated to space security called the United States Space Force (learn more in lesson 4.9 - The US Space Force). This agency is separate from NASA but has the ability to launch multiple satellites, operate extraterrestrial probes, and recover satellites back to Earth.20

Since 2013, an additional 30 space agencies have been proposed worldwide. Most of their missions include the use of satellite-launching capabilities and all of them are in various stages of planning, obtaining funding, and starting to design launch modules. The agencies with funding are currently supported at less than 10% of NASA’s budget.21

CONNECTIONThe thrust needed for lift off is very high so rockets need more propulsion. Creating a rocket that can escape the forces of gravity and have enough thrust for the desired payload is a challenge for space agencies. Many of the space agencies that have launch capabilities still use versions of their first launch vehicle because they know it will work. Design your own launch vehicle and experiment with the amount of propulsion with NASA’s Water Rocket Construction activity.

International Coordination

While space exploration was started with competition and is still shrouded in the desire for nations to show their superiority, it is also very challenging. This challenge has led to cooperation between countries in order to achieve their next goal. The most recognizable of these efforts is the ISS (learn more in lesson 4.5 - The International Space Station). The ISS is a collaboration between the space agencies of the U.S., Russia, Europe, Japan and Canada.22 Since 1958, the United Nations has also worked to increase collaboration and decrease animosity between nations in space. Because of this work, the United Nations went through a few different iterations until 1992 when the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) was created (learn more in lesson 7.1 - Space Law).23 The focus of UNOOSA is to advance equitable access to space and help countries (especially developing ones) to have access to and utilize the benefits of space. They do this through a number of different initiatives like UN-SPIDER and Access to SPace 4 All.24

With the renewed focus on putting people on the Moon and the heightened number of countries working to get a habitable base on Mars, there is a greater need for international cooperation. In 2016, 14 space agencies including NASA, ESA, JAXA and ROSCOSMOS created the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG). The main goal of ISECG is to exchange information about interests, plans and activities between member agencies, and to work together to strengthen exploration efforts. While it was founded by 14 agencies, it is open to any agency that wants to participate.25 In 2021, 24 space agencies from around the globe met to discuss the Global Exploration Strategy and its implications for space exploration of the Moon and Mars.26 

The initial origin of ISS was an international collaboration between the U.S., Europe, Russia, Canada and Japan. Each country has on ground bases that are responsible for different aspects of the station’s operations as well as training people to visit it. As of 2022, the collaboration partners of the ISS have grown to over five agencies and 15 governments.27,28 

  See where the different operations are located in each partner country to keep the ISS operational.

[Figure 3]

Source: NASA

Additional Reading

While the ESA does not currently have the technology to launch humans into space, they  recruit, train and sponsor astronauts for space travel through other agencies. Learn more about the history and recruitment process of the ESA in Carol Norberg’s book, Human Spaceflight and Exploration.

The Cassini-Huygen mission was historical in its planetary exploration. The knowledge gained about Saturn is truly groundbreaking. Larry Esposito and Stamatios Krimigis outline the scientific discoveries and the future of the international collaboration that brought them about in their book, Saturn from Cassini-Huygens. 

The history of aerospace in Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand, Taiwan, Thailand and Uzbekistan have shifted and changed overtime. Prior to the 1900s, these countries focused their astrophysics brainpower on positional astronomy, but at the turn of the century they shifted to a “new astronomy”. This shift started many on their path to developing space programs. Learn about this shift and each country’s history in Tsuko Nakamura and Wayne Orchiston’s book, The Emergence of Astrophysics in Asia: Opening a New Window on the Universe.

ISECG recognizes that science is needed to support human and robotic space exploration. To this end, they have published the white paper, Scientific Opportunities Enabled by Human Exploration Beyond Low-Earth Orbit. 

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. How did the Cold War (review lesson 4.2 - Cold War Era for more information) affect which countries currently have human space flight capabilities?

2. China was so much later to the game when it comes to human space flight capabilities, but they are catching up to the U.S. and Russia. Why might this delay allow a country to move faster through the design, testing and launching of an operational spacecraft?

3. Why are countries that are currently developing their space technologies focused on extraterrestrial landing capabilities before they focus on human space flight? Think about what can currently be done with human space flight and what the next frontier of space is for human space flight.

4. Research a space agency that is proposed, but not yet established. What sparked the nation’s interest in developing their own space capabilities? Where are they in the process of development? How will it benefit the citizens of their nation?

5. Space is not owned by any country. No country has staked their claim on any other extraterrestrial body. Given these facts, why is it important for different countries to collaborate on space plans and operations?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

While the U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in the Space Race during the Cold War, the rest of the world watched as these countries increased their capacity to launch missiles into space and across the globe. This concerned many countries and sparked China to develop its own space program in the 1950s. China first partnered with the Soviet Union to have access to the R-2 rocket, but that partnership ended in 1960.1 In the early 1950s, Qian Xuesen (the engineer who helped to establish the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California) went back to China to assist in the design of missiles and their launching capabilities based on the outline of the Soviet missiles.2 Xuesen was promoted as the first director of the Ministry of the National Defense’s Fifth Research Academy which developed the Chinese ballistic missiles which eventually became the foundation of the space program.3  The Seventh Ministry of Machine Building Industry added to Xuesen’s work and continued until it was renamed the Ministry of Space.4  

The Chinese Space Program was very focused on nuclear weapons and was housed in China’s Ministry of National Defense.5 The need to develop this technology led to the opening of the University of Science and Technology of China in Beijing in 1958.6 By this time, China had already constructed their first launch site (Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center) and built their own version of the R-2 (Dongfeng-1, DF-1). They were also well on their way to developing intercontinental ballistic missiles and nuclear warheads. Just two years later on February 19, 1960, China launched their first sounding rocket (also known as a suborbital rocket). These rockets are designed to carry instruments to collect measurements and scientific information in addition to functioning as a proof of ability for launching.7 

By the end of the 20th century, China had shifted its goals to send humans into space in order to keep up with the U.S. and Russian space programs. China sent its first living organisms into space in 1964 when eight white mice went into space. In 1970, the first Chinese artificial satellite (Dong Fang Hong 1) was launched, making China the fifth country to send a satellite into orbit. China continued advancing and in 1975, the country was able to launch and successfully recover a satellite designed to return to Earth. By 1999, China was testing uncrewed spacecraft (Shenzhou 1) launches in preparation for launching their first taikonauts (China’s designation for “space sailors” based on the Chinese word for “space” and the Greek word for “sailor”).8

Learn MoreChina's space program has developed as a faster timeline then other programs by using the advance made by other countries. View an infographic at China.org.cn.

BeiDou 1

In 2000, China launched its first satellite constellation, BeiDou Satellite Navigation Experimental System (BeiDou 1), into orbit. BeiDou 1 was designed to aid in navigation like the U.S.’ global positioning system (GPS) constellation. Four satellites were stationed in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO). This was different from the navigation constellations orbiting at the time. Being in GEO allowed for less satellites to be used but also limited the space covered by the system, as the satellites rotate at the same speed as Earth. Satellites can only cover areas of Earth that are visible from their position and GEO satellites always see the same area of Earth as they move with the planet’s rotation. The first two satellites were launched in the same year, but it took nearly three more years to launch the third satellite which was needed for the system to become operational. By this satellite being available to civilian users in April of 2004, China became the third country to have an operational navigation network in space. In 2007, the fourth satellite was launched to increase the accuracy of the positioning data (bringing it from 100 meters to less than 20 meters in accuracy).9

The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is now on their third iteration of the BeiDou constellation. This newest version includes 35 satellites (eight in various GEO orbits and 27 in MEO or medium Earth orbit). These updates will allow the new system to have full global coverage with both horizontal and vertical positioning with an accuracy of 10 meters (an increase from five meters in the Asia-Pacific region). While the launching of these satellites started in 2018, the system became fully operational in 2020.10 

CONNECTIONSee what a GEO satellite’s orbit looks like using Open Source Physics’ Earth and Satellite Geostationary 3D Simulation Model. To observe what a BeiDou satellite might see, choose the “Geostationary near Singapore” from the drop-down menu. Then select “front view” and press play. Pause the simulation when the satellite is directly between you and the planet. Then zoom in on the satellite until it is just out of view. This will show you the portion of Earth visible by the satellite.

Shenzhou 5

In 1992, China set its sights on a crewed spaceflight. The original plan was to have the first launch by the end of 1999 to demonstrate China’s progress before the new millennium.11 The Shenzhou (Chinese for “Divine Craft”) spacecraft was modeled after the Russian Soyuz, but with the added feature of independent flight by the orbital module. Despite the goals of the program, the first uncrewed test flight was launched in November of 1999 behind the proposed October launch of the first crewed mission. This was followed by a 2001 test flight with a monkey, dog and rabbit aboard. Later in 2001, a test flight launched to test the life-support system. In 2002, the final test flight was launched.12

On October 15, 2003, Yang Liwei was the first Chinese taikonaut launched into space. He was aboard Shenzhou 5, stayed in space for over 22 hours, and completed 14 orbits. Liwei was launched from the same launchpad (Jiuquan Satellite Launching Center) as the other Chinese space launches. His successful mission made China the third country to have independent spaceflight capabilities.13 Liwei wrote in his notebook during the time of his orbit, “For the peace and advancement of the human beings, the Chinese people come to the space!”14 The re-entry module successfully deployed a parachute and used four landing buffer engines to land in the grasslands of central Inner Mongolia. Liwei left the orbital module in orbit for over two more years. This module conducted scientific experiments and helped gather data for further spacecraft development.15 

This was just the start of the CNSA’s crewed missions with Shenzhou 6 and 7 continuing their advancements for humans in space.16 

DID YOU KNOW?

Liwei was selected just 16 hours before launch to be the first taikonaut in space. Watch his flight from launch to landing. 

Chang'e 1

The CNSA named their lunar program after the Chinese goddess of the Moon, Chang’e. She is said to have stolen the Elixir of Immortality from her husband, drank it, and then floated up to the Moon becoming its essence.17 On October 24, 2007, China launched its first lunar orbit spacecraft called Chang'e 1. This marked China’s first deep space mission and opened up lunar exploration for the country. Beyond testing the technology, the mission aimed to create a 3D map of the lunar surface, gather data about the composition and thickness of the lunar surface, and explore the space environment near the Moon. The working orbit was 125 miles (200 kilometers) above the lunar surface allowing for an orbital period of 127 minutes. The mission was originally scheduled for one year, but was extended an additional four months to allow for a full-moon image map to be produced and operational tests for future lander missions as it moved closer to the lunar surface. On March 1, 2009, Chang'e 1 was directed to impact the lunar surface and became the first Chinese object on the Moon.18 Chang’e 1 was able to obtain microwave radiometer data from essentially every location of the Moon. This data was the first of its kind, allowing for an extensive study of lunar dust and impact debris on the lunar surface. Chang’e 1 also obtained stereo camera images that were used to create a more accurate lunar topography model. In addition, this new model was used to discover more volcanoes and basins on the lunar surface.19

The CNSA did not stop with Chang’e 1, but has continued to explore the Moon with the goal of landing a crewed mission one day. Chang’e 2 also successfully orbited the Moon and took more images looking for a suitable landing location. Chang’e 3 made history by becoming the first soft landing on the lunar surface in almost 40 years. It also delivered the first Chinese rover to the Moon. Chang’e 4 continued making history when it became the first ever spacecraft to be landed on the darkside of the Moon (landing in the Von Kármán crater on January 2, 2019). This is extremely hard because there is no way to communicate directly from Earth with spacecraft while they are on the far side of the Moon. To perform this landing, the CNSA had to launch a relay satellite, Queqiao, into lunar orbit. This enables them to communicate with any point on the lunar surface. The rover accompanying Chang’e 4, Yutu-2, had cotton seeds aboard (among other living organisms). The cotton seeds sprouted making the Chinese the first to germinate plants on another world. Unfortunately, Yutu-2, needing to conserve energy during the lunar night, did not use its battery power to heat the chamber and all the plants died that night.20 But Yutu-2 continues to break new records on the Moon by being the longest lasting rover with over 1,000 days of collection as of October, 2021 and is still operational.21

Chang’e 5 launched on November 23, 2020 with the mission of remaining on the lunar surface for one lunar day (two Earth weeks), and gathering and returning about two kilograms of lunar samples from up to two meters in depth to Earth. Chang’e 5 landed in the Mons Rumker region of Oceanus Procellarum (the dark-gray region in the Moon’s northwest corner that can be seen with the naked eye on the Moon’s surface) just over a week later. The European Space Agency (ESA) mapped the progress of Chang’e 5’s mission as CNSA completed its significant checkpoints. In addition, 1.731 kilograms (3.7 pounds) of samples were successfully collected and stored in a sample container which was launched back into orbit on December 3rd, 2021 just two Earth days after the rover landed. After releasing the samples on a trajectory to Earth, the Chang’e 5 orbiter was sent to Sun-Earth Langrange point L1 (learn more in lesson 5.3 - Satellites) to test technology and make solar observations.22 The capsule containing the samples landed at the same landing site as the crewed Shenzhou spacecraft in Inner Mongolia. Chang’e 5 returned the youngest lunar samples, estimated to be 1.2 billion years old - as compared to the Apollo samples that were between 3.1 and 4.4 billion years old. These samples will continue to help build scientists’ understanding of the solar system’s history; specifically that of Earth and the Moon.23 

DID YOU KNOW?

Rocks from the lunar surface of the Moon can help us learn more about the early solar system and the formation of Earth. Watch the samples being extracted from Chang’e 5.  

Tianwen 1

China became the second nation to ever land a rover on Mars on its first attempt in 2021. Along with the Chang’e advances, 2020 also saw China making strides towards a crewed mission to Mars. On July 23, Tianwen 1 launched with the Long March 5 rocket.24 The orbiter also contained a rover and lander. This complex mission to Mars is not something any other nation has attempted.

The orbiter entered orbit around Mars in February of 2021. Its mission was to map Mars’ morphology and geology (specifically mapping soil characteristics and water-ice distribution), collect data about the ionosphere as well as the electromagnetic and gravitational fields, and serve as a communication relay for the rover.25 As of May 2022, Tianwen-1 has completed all of its tasks and entered dormancy. The orbiter was able to obtain medium-resolution images of the entire planet.26 

The rover (Zhurong) was released and landed in the Utopia Planitia region on May 14, 2021.27 It found hydrated minerals which are most likely evidence of groundwater.28 This is a huge step towards building a base on Mars. Zhurong entered its dormant mode on May 18, 2022, due to the Martian winter’s temperature drop, and bad sand and dust conditions.29 

The success of Tianwen 1 has spurred the CNSA to announce that it will be sending regular missions to Mars starting in 2033 (far sooner than NASA’s current estimate).30

DID YOU KNOW?

The poles of Mars are so cold they contain dry ice, which makes them look white in images. The orbiter was also able to capture high-resolution images of the two natural satellites of Mars. Look at the images and see what they are able to reveal.  

Tiangong Space Station

The Shenzhou mission continues and has merged with the Tiangong (Chinese for “heavenly mission”) program. The Tiangong mission is to place an operational Chinese space station into orbit.31

Tiangong 1 was launched on September 29, 2011. It contained a laboratory module so that the docking technology could be tested for later missions, but it was never meant to be the final space station.32 In November of 2011, Shenzhou 8 successfully docked with Tiangong 1 in an uncrewed mission proving the success of the rendezvous and docking technologies.33 In June of 2012, Shenzhou 9 successfully docked the first Chinese crewed spacecraft with Jing Haipeng, Liu Wang and Liu Yang as the crew. Yang made history as the first Chinese woman in space. But this was only her first mission to space as she returned in June of 2022 on Shenzhou-14.34 The docking was via automatic operations and occurred without incident. All three taikonauts lived in the pressurized, habitable component of Tiangong 1 for over a week. During that time, they undocked and manually redocked; the first crewed docking by the CNSA.35 The crew returned to Earth on June 19, 2012.36 Shenzhou 10 was crewed by Nie Haisheng, Zhang Xioguang and Wang Yaping (the second Chinese woman taikonaut in space). It launched on June 11, 2013 and was the last mission for Tiangong 1. During her time on Tiangong 1, Yaping taught a 45-minute lesson from space that was broadcast to millions of children across China. Just 15 days after launch, the crew successfully landed back on Earth.37 Tiangong 1 burned up upon entry into Earth’s atmosphere on April 1, 2018. The targeted reentry had the prototype station crash into Earth over the Pacific Ocean. The majority of the school-bus-sized satellite should have broken up and burned before making contact with Earth’s surface.38 

Tiangong 2 was almost identical to Tiangong 1 except that it had a larger payload capacity, and the habitation space was redesigned based on what was learned from previous Tiangong 1 missions. The orbital module contained resources for a 20-day mission by three people or a 30-day mission by two people. The largest addition to Tiangong 2 was a robotic arm. The arm functioned similarly to the Canadarm2 on the International Space Station (ISS) and assisted with vehicle captures and spacewalk activities. It could carry 25 metric tons making it a valuable part of installation and the retrieval of external science payloads.39 Tiangong 2 was launched on September 15, 2016.40 On October 16, 2016, two taikonauts launched on Shenzhou 11 to dock with Tiangong 2 for the first time. Two days later, they successfully docked.41 They lived on board for 30 days proving China’s capability for long-term, space habitability. They were the only residents of Tiangong 2 during its time in space.42 Tiangong 2 followed Tiangong 1 into the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean on July 18, 2019. The space shift also was expected to burn up in the atmosphere, but was more controlled than Tiangong 1 in its descent.43 Any parts that were not disintegrated landed in Point Nemo, a location in the Pacific Ocean that is farther from land than anywhere else on Earth.44 

The universe is so vast, beautiful and fascinating. I was fortunate and happy to have the chance to fly up into the sky again and take a spacewalk on our own space station. - Taikonaut Liu Boming45

Tiangong 1 and 2 were never planned to be permanent, but Tiangong Space Station is. The station will consist of three components. The first module sent into orbit was Tianhe (Chinese for “harmony of the heavens”) which is the habitable module. It was successfully launched on April 29, 2021 and is the core of the space station.46 Tianzhou 2 (Tianzhou being the cargo delivery program parallel to the Shenzhou program for crewed missions) brought 6.8 tons of supplies including propellants and goods for survival to Tianhe in June 2021. Tianzhou 2 also performed a variety of checks and tests to make sure the module was functioning as expected. This was in preparation for crewed missions to the module.47 Shenzhou 13 docked with Tianhe on June 17, 2021 with Nie Haisheng, Liu Boming and Tang Hongbo aboard. The three men stayed aboard for 90 days, setting a new record for China. They performed tests, experiments, outreach with live lectures, and numerous other activities to prepare the station for future missions. Upon their return to Earth, they also landed in a new location closer to the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (instead of the grasslands of Inner Mongolia that were used by prior missions).48 Just a month later, Senzhou 13 launched carrying Zhai Zhigang, Wang Yaping and Ye Guangfu to dock with Tianhe. This mission lasted six months, shattering the previous record set by Shenzhou 12. Yaping also set the record for longest spaceflight by a Chinese woman and was the first Chinese woman to conduct a spacewalk. They also performed science experiments, outreach and other activities to prepare the station for future crews.49 On July 24, 2022, the second module, Wentian (“Quest for the Heavens”), launched to join Tianhe and grow the space station. Wentian is an experimental module. It will also provide backup life-support and propulsion for Tianhe.50 The last module, Mengtian (“Dreaming of the Heavens”), is also a science lab module that is expected to launch in October of 2022. This will complete China’s Tiangong Space Station.51

DID YOU KNOW?

On July 31, 2022, the Long March 5B fell to Earth. This was the third time an “uncontrolled” rocket has fallen back to Earth from the CNSA. The Long March 5B was the rocket that took Wentian to the Tiangong Space Station.  

Additional Reading

Learn more about China’s space history, motivations and goals in The New Space Race: China vs. the United States by Eric Seedhouse. This book focuses on the militaristic motivations and goals of the CNSA. 

The New York Times has created A Tour of China’s Future Tiangong Space Station which is an illustrated guide to the different components of the station with scale indication allowing for a better understanding of the size of the station. 

China’s Space Program: A 2021 Perspective outlines the country’s major accomplishments since 2016 and their mission objectives for the next five years. Their goals are broken down into five major categories: (1) Development of Space Technology and Systems, (2)  Developing and Expanding Space Application Industry, (3) Research on Space Science, (4) Modernizing Space Governance, and (5) International Cooperation.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. China entered the space arena after both the U.S. and Russia, and is now the third largest actor in space. Explain China’s progress. 

2. 2020 was a big year for the CNSA. What did they launch in that year? Why do you think they launched those missions in the same year? What could they have gained from waiting on Mars? What did they gain from not waiting?

3. Tianwen 1 is mapping electromagnetic and gravitational fields on Mars. Research why this information is needed for planning and developing on the Red Planet.

4. China plans to start regular missions to Mars in 2033, up to a decade before NASA’s planned missions. Given China’s speed of advancement in space technology, do you think this is a plausible goal? Support your prediction with evidence from both China’s space program as well as the space programs of other countries and the private industry.

5. The ISS has never housed a taikonaut aboard. Politically speaking, why did China not join this effort opting to build their own space station?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.

The evolving space frontier, the intricacies of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), the potential of nuclear weapons dropping from orbit, satellite destruction, cyber attacks, space debris and so much more are now a real possibility for many nations around the world. These threats have spurred the U.S. to shift part of its space focus back to military operations rather than just exploratory missions. Holding the high ground has always been a key tenet of warfare and there is no higher ground than space for Earth’s warfare. All of these doctrines have collided to inspire the creation of the U.S. Space Force as its own stand alone military agency.1 The U.S. Space Force will facilitate space launches, track debris, and operate the Department of Defense satellites.2

History of the U.S. Air Force Space Command

The Air Force revived the space support of warfighters with the Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) in 1982.3 Nine years later, the technologies developed from AFSPC were put into action during Operation Desert Storm. The space systems allowed for stealth air strikes using the Global Positioning System (GPS), precision-guided weapons and satellite communication. This was the first time that space technologies were fully integrated into a military mission and not simply used as an add-on.4 

In 2001, the Space and Missile Systems Center (SMC) was transferred to AFSPC. SMC is the military arm responsible for ICBMs for the U.S. SMC is also responsible for the numerous satellite programs that aid in defense, communication, surveillance, and navigation.5 The importance of AFSPC was further understood after the 2001 attacks on the Twin Towers and its support of the U.S. Central Command during the military action against Afghanistan and Iraq. This led to the 2002 assignment of its own four-star commander (AFSPC had previously shared a commander with the U.S. Space Command and the North American Aerospace Defense Command or NORAD).6 

In 2009, with the activation of the 24th Air Force, AFSPC took responsibility for cyberspace operations. AFSPC took on this task so that space and cyberspace could share many of the same characteristics. Therefore, the lessons learned operating in space would be transferable to upgrading and defending the Air Force networks. Access, persistence and awareness will be the key characteristics transferred from space to cyberspace.7 Later that same year, the Air Force wanted to consolidate all nuclear forces to be able to rebook the nuclear mission. This meant that AFSPC transferred all ICBM forces to the Air Force Global Strike Command.8 

As a result, AFSPC wanted to focus on gaining and maintaining space superiority. In July of 2018, the cyberspace mission needed to be moved to Air Combat Command. This allowed information warfare to be fully integrated within the Air Force.9

[Figure 2]

Source: Reddit

National Defense Authorization Act of 2019

In August of 2019, the U.S. Space Command was enveloped by AFSPC with the recognition that space is its own geographic domain when it comes to warfare.10 Just a few months later, President Donald Trump signed the National Defense Authorization Act in December of 2019. This created the U.S. Space Force (USSF), the first newly armed service branch since 1947. The new agency was effective immediately.11 This move solidified the growing recognition that space is a national security imperative. Expanding military forces in space was a personal priority for President Trump who first mentioned the idea of the USSF in 2018. Secretary of Defense Mark Esper reiterated the President’s beliefs when he said, “Space has become so important to our way of life, our economy and our national security that we must be prepared as a Nation to protect it from hostile actions.”12 With many other nations beyond the U.S. and Russia actively operating in space, it is becoming crowded and has become crucial for many everyday life activities for Americans on Earth. Therefore, defending U.S. interest in space as well as expanding them to defense on Earth is a primary objective.13

DID YOU KNOW?

The USSF started with the use of existing forces which meant they needed to repurpose Air Force personnel and bases to be used for the new branch.14 Watch this early recruitment video for new personnel. 

Mission and Structure

The USSF is “responsible for organizing, training, and equipping Guardians to conduct global space operations that enhance the way our joint and coalition forces fight, while also offering decision makers military options to achieve national objectives.”15 As the U.S. Air Force Airmen transfer to the USSF and new recruits are added to the ranks, they will take on the title of Guardian.16 The title was adopted after a yearlong process that took information and opinions from both space professionals as well as the general public. It connects the word all the way back to the Air Force Space Command in 1983 by calling back its motto, “Guardians of the High Frontier.” The motto, “Semper Supra” (“Always Above”) for the USSF also harkens back to the AFSPC.17

USSF has three field commands: Space Operations Command (SpOC), Space Systems Command (SSC), and Space Training and Readiness Command (STARCOM). Each of these has deltas that are organized around specific functions like operations and training, and each delta has squadrons that focus on specific tactics.18 

SpOC is headquartered at Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado. This will be the field command responsible for combatant missions and personnel. SSC is responsible for all aspects of lethal and resilient space capabilities, including the development and testing of those technologies. It will oversee the science and technology activities of the USSF. To do this, SSC will take over responsibility for the SMC, the Commercial Satellite Communications Office, and the program offices of space systems. STARCOM is also housed at Peterson and is in charge of the training and education of space professionals. The goal of this field command is to have personnel ready to address any and all challenges of warfare in the space domain.19

DID YOU KNOW?

The USSF graduated their first class of Guardians from the Air Force Academy almost one year after its inception. One of its primary missions is to bring space capabilities to all Americans as well as the armed services. 

Careers

The USSF has military and civilian careers available, and is actively recruiting Guardians. To enlist, there are five steps you must go through: (1) qualify, (2) apply, (3) test, (4) screen, and (5) train. To qualify, you must be a U.S. citizen, be between 17 and 39 years old, and have a high school diploma or GED. The application process is still conducted through the Air Force to consolidate resources and reduce redundancies. Testing includes an assessment of your capabilities in arithmetic reasoning, mathematics knowledge, word knowledge and paragraph comprehension. You will then be screened against both moral and physical standards, followed by training. Once enlisted, there are many career paths to choose from client systems and fusion analyst with programing, operations, and other analyst positions in between. To become an officer, the steps are the same but they are a little more intensive. To qualify as an officer, you must meet the enlistment criteria, but also have an undergraduate or postgraduate degree. The testing is more detailed and challenging as is the screening, and the training is only held twice per year. Once you have been accepted, you can be assigned a role in management overseeing acquisition, cyber operations, development of engineers, intelligence, or general space operations. Compensation and benefits for Guardians and officers is comparable to the other armed services with retirement options, education opportunities, and food and housing subsidies.20 

By contrast, civilian careers have a three-step process similar to other private sector jobs. These include: (1) apply, (2) interview, and (3) onboard. There are careers in all aspects of space operations from administration to space operations. There are also internships for current students and recent graduates. Compensation for civilian careers offers competitive salary, insurance, retirement options, and up to $10,000 a year in federal student loan repayment.21 

CONNECTION

Explore the military and civilian careers available in the USSF. Scroll to the bottom of each page and click on the careers that are the most interesting to you to learn more about the opportunities.

Additional Reading

Spacepower was written by the USSF and outlines the agency’s theory of spacepower. This includes why it is vital for the nation, how it will be employed, who the forces are, and what they value.

Taylor Dinerman outlines the start of the USSF, the international space landscape, and the future of U.S. spacepower in his book, Space Force!: A Quirky and Opinionated Look at America’s Newest Military Service.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INQUIRY

The following questions offer a path for students and others to go further on their journey to learn more about space science, space technology and the innovations that matter to people on Earth. But these questions are only the beginning. Readers are encouraged to follow them up with their own lines of inquiry, pursuing what is most interesting and what inspires the most passion about the future of humanity; on Earth and in space. 

1. In exploring USSF careers, which ones sound interesting to you? What about them makes them seem like a career you might want to learn more about? Research the education and qualifications needed for the career(s) you chose.

2. The USSF is designed to protect the U.S. from space threats in low Earth Orbit and those leaving/entering the atmosphere. With various countries and private companies setting their sights on other planets, how will the USSF need to adapt and change to continue their mission?

3. Most countries started their space missions with military applications in mind, including the U.S. They then went to launch humans into space. With the U.S. moving back to military space efforts, what other countries have reinvigorated their military space programs? What does this mean for the USSF?

This Space Education curriculum is produced by the Space Prize Foundation
in collaboration with our partners and sponsors.